# AC 43.13-1B CHG 1 — Scanned Pages (OCR text)

These pages exist only as scanned images in the AC, so they are missing from the chapter files. Text below is OCR and may contain errors; tables and charts are approximate. For exact values open the page image: https://ref.tjk.wtf/faa-handbooks/ac4313/pages/<page>.webp

[AC 43.13-1B p. 3-31]

SECTION 4. WINDSHIELDS, ENCLOSURES, AND WINDOWS
3-40. GENERAL. These repairs are applicable to plastic windshields, enclosures, and windows
in nonpressurized airplanes. For pressurized airplanes, replace or repair plastic elements in
accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendation. When windshields and side windows
made of acrylic plastics are damaged, they are usually replaced unless the damage is minor and a
repair would not be in the line of vision. Repairs usually require a great deal of labor.
Replacement parts are readily available, so replacement is normally more economical than
a. Minor Repairs. There are times, however, when a windshield may be cracked and
safety is not impaired. In that case, repairs can be made by stop-drilling the ends of the crack
with a # 30 drill (1/8 inch) to prevent the concentration of stresses causing the crack to continue.
Drill a series of number 40 holes a half-inch from the edge of the crack about a half-inch apart,
and lace through these holes with brass safety wire (see Figure 3-24) and seal with clear silicone
b. Temporary Repairs. One way to make a temporary repair is to stop-drill the ends of
the crack, and then drill number 27 holes every inch or so in the crack. Use AN515-6 screws and
AN365-632 nuts with AN960-6 washers on both sides of the plastic. This will hold the crack
together and prevent further breakage until the windshield can be properly repaired or replaced.
(See Figure 3-24.)
FIGURE 3-24. TEMPORARY REPAIRS TO CRACKED WINDSHIELDS OR
SMALL MACHINE
SL SCREWS AND
12" <
A. LACE THE CRACK WITH SAFETY WIRE B. CLAMP THE CRACK TOGETHER WITH MACHINE
SCREWS, NUTS, AND WASHERS.
c. Permanent Repairs. Windshields or side windows with small cracks that affect only
the appearance rather than the airworthiness of a sheet may be repaired by first stop-drilling the
ends of the crack with a # 30 or a 1/8-inch drill. Then use a hypodermic syringe and needle to fill
the crack with polymerizable cement such as PS-30 or Weld-On 40, and allow capillary action to
fill the crack completely. Soak the end of a 1/8-inch acrylic rod in cement to form a cushion and
insert it in the stop-drilled hole. Allow the repair to dry for about 30 minutes, and then trim the
rod off flush with the sheet.

[AC 43.13-1B p. 4-17]

TABLE 4-6. RECOMMENDED RADII FOR 90-DEGREE BENDS IN
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
Alloy and Approximate Sheet Thickness (t) (inch)
Temper 0.016 0.032 0.064 0.128 0.182 0.258
' Alclad sheet may be bent over slightly smaller radii than the corresponding tempers of
uncoated alloy.
2 Immediately after quenching, this alloy may be formed over appreciably smaller radii.
FIGURE 4-2. SETBACK FOR A 90-DEGREE BEND
44.5%T
BEND RADIUS (BR)

[AC 43.13-1B p. 4-19]

(2) Figure 4-3 shows an example of a piece of 0.064-inch sheet metal bent through
45 degrees to form an open angle of 135 degrees. For 45 degrees, the K-factor is 0.41421. The
setback, or the distance from the mold point to the bend tangent line, is:
= 0.41421 (0.25 + 0.064)
= 0.130 inches
FIGURE 4-3. METHODS OF DETERMINING SETBACK FOR BENDS OTHER THAN
90 DEGREES
—+——T = 0.064”
, R = 0.250
} _ lan ARTRACK
This is a 90-degree angie.
= 0.250 + 0.064
= 0.314"
T = 0.064"
a R = 0.250
This is a 135-degree open angle. The metal
has only been bent 45°.
= (0.250 + 0.064) 0.4421
= 0.130”
T = 0,064 =. \
x R = 0.250
This is a 45-degree closed angle.
= (0.250 + 0.064)2.4442
= 0.758"
(3) Ifa closed angle of 45 degrees is formed, the metal must be bent through
135 degrees. The K-factor for 135 degrees is 2.4142, so the setback, or distance from the mold
point to the bend tangent line, is 0.758 inch.
4-57. RIVETING.
a. The two major types of rivets used in aircraft are the common solid shank rivet, which
must be driven using an air-driven rivet gun and bucking bar; and special (blind) rivets, which

[AC 43.13-1B p. 4-25]

FIGURE 4-5. RIVET HOLE SPACING AND EDGE DISTANCE FOR SINGLE-LAP
SHEET SPLICES
STRENGTH THROUGH THIS
SECTION tS 78 % OF SHEET
WITHOUT HOLES. -— |
|_| RIVET (PREFER-
. . ABLY ABOUT
Q ae | THICKER SHEET)
20 4 rf Le t
(A) DOUBLE ROW
STRENGTH THROUGH THIS = <t— i
SECTION IS 83% OF SHEET( +O---O--6--O |
WITHOUT HOLES. ; |
(B) TRIPLE OR MULTIPLE ROWS
d. The 2117 rivets may be driven in the condition received, but 2017 rivets above
3/16 inch in diameter and all 2024 rivets are to be kept packed in dry ice or refrigerated in the
“quenched” condition until driven, or be reheat-treated just prior to driving, as they would
otherwise be too hard for satisfactory riveting. Dimensions for formed rivet heads are shown in
Figure 4-6, item (a), together with commonly found rivet imperfections.

[AC 43.13-1B p. 4-29]

FIGURE 4-8. MECHANICAL-LOCK (BULBED CHERRYLOCK) CHERRY RIVET
© — STEM ® = 3 — STEM!S PULLED
— — INTO RIVET SLEEVE
= BEFORE == AND STARTS TO FORM
== / COLLAR PULLING -=\ BULB BLIND HEAD
iver BEGINS f
ZA. Wiig —— GAP LL CLAMP-UP AND
Si . 7 | HOLE FILL
OO _ SSSS SQsQ°y i SOO38Q ACTION BEGIN
G2 = (@) 3 FORMATION OF BLIND
== CLAMP-UP COMPLETED == HEAD AND HOLE FILLING
== AS STEMCONTINUES TO == ARE COMPLETED
== BULB OUT BLIND HEAD =
, ; SHEAR RING NOW SHEARS
FROM STEM CONE TO ALLOW
STEM TO PULL FURTHER INTO
RIVET HEAD RIVET
g.,7~ FIRMLY SEATED
ee ee LLL ACO
Va \_guno soe suis weno Be sveannnocuananress
MINIMUM GRIP BLIND SIDE BULBED HEAD
(IN MINIMUM GRIP SHEAR
RING MAY NOT SHEAR)
= SHEAR RING HAS MOVED
© ==} DOWN STEMCONE UNTIL ©
== PULLING HEAD
= COMPLETELY INSTALLED
= AUTOMATICALLY STOPS
SS STEM OREAK NOTCH BULBED CHERRYLOCK
FLUSH WITH TOP OF
RIVET HEAD
LOCKING COLLAR IS NOW | ee eae
READY TO BE INSERTED dd a ULL. COLLAR AND STEM
aan OQ yi RSQ Has FRACTURED FLUSH
LA: = Git, Wl WITH RIVET HEAD
WSs V SQ (MAXIMUM GRIP
UZ BLIND SIDE ILLUSTRATED)
BULBED HEAD

[AC 43.13-1B p. 4-30]

(b) The Bulbed CherryLOCK rivets are available in two head styles: universal and
100-degree countersunk. Their lengths are measured in increments of 1/16 inch. It is important to
select a rivet with a length related to the grip length of the metal being joined.
| (c) The Bulbed CherryLOCK rivet can be installed using a G30 Cherry Rivet Hand
Puller or a pneumatic Bulbed CherryLOCK pulling tool.
(4) The CherryMAX rivet (see Figure 4-9) uses one tool to install three standard rivet
diameters and their oversize counterparts. This makes the use of CherryMAX rivets very popular
with many small general aviation repair shops. CherryMAX rivets are available in four nominal
diameters: 1/8, 5/32, 3/16, and 1/4 inch; and three oversized diameters. CherryMAX rivets are
manufactured with two head styles: universal and countersunk. The CherryMAX rivets consists
of five parts: bulbed blind header, hollow rivet shell, locking (foil) collar, driving anvil, and
pulling stem. The blind bulbed header takes up the extended shank and forms the bucktail on a
CherryMAX rivet stem. Rivet sleeves are made from 5056 aluminum, Monel, and
INCONEL 600. The stems are made from alloy steel, corrosion resistant steel (CRES), and
| INCONEL X-750 stem. CherryMAX rivets have an ultimate shear strength ranging from
50 thousands of pounds per square inch (KSI) to 75 KSI.
FIGURE 4-9. CHERRYMAX RIVET
ms ate COLLAR LS,
(5) An Olympic-Lok rivet (see Figure 4-10) is a light three-piece mechanically locked,
spindle-type blind rivet. It carries its stem lock integral to the manufactured head. While
installing, the lockring is pressed into a groove on the pulling stem just as the rivet completes
drawing the metal together. After installation is completed, never file the stem of an
Olympic-Lok rivet, because it will weaken the lockring attachment. The Olympic-Lok fastener is
available in three head styles: universal protruding, 100-degree flush countersink, and
100-degree flush shear; and three diameters: 1/8, 5/32, and 3/16 inch. The three diameters are
available in eight different alloy combinations of 2017-T4, A-286, 5056, and Monel.
Olympic-Lok lock spindles are made from the same material as the sleeves.

[AC 43.13-1B p. 4-31]

FIGURE 4-10. OLYMPIC-LOK RIVET
SLEEVE REDUCED INTERNAL DIAMETER TO DOUBLE
PRECISELY ALIGN THE LOCKING GROOVE TAPER DESIGN
FULLY SERRATED STEM CONTINUOUS INTEGRAL
FOR INCREMENTAL PULL-UP LOCKING COLLAR N |
RV 1201 SERIES |! TAU =
wsees TMM [| ‘[|
HEAD STYLE CW
1/16 INCH GRIP VARIATION CAPABILITY KAY _
DESIGNED INTO FASTENER
LARGER SECOND SHANK
RV 1200 SERIES FLUSH BREAKING STEM NZ DIAMETER FOR EXTRA
PROTRUDING i SLEEVE EXPANSION AND
HEAD STYLE GREAT BLIND-SIDE
NALA AT el al BEARING AREA
eNO NIU UANU AIL poke
GREATER LOCKING COLLAR VOLUME SS PROTRUDING HEAD
DRIVEN INTO LOCKING GROOVE UNDERCUT ELIMINATES
! When the stem travel is Continued pulling breaks
Olympic-Lok blind rivet is Tool jaws grip the stem and stopped by the sleeve's inter- the stem flush to the fasten-
inserted into a prepared pull it into the sleeve, closing nal step, the integral locking er head. Fiushness is
hole. Note the clearance the sheet gap, expanding the collar shears free and is assured by the positioning
between the rivet and the sleeve to fill the hole, and forced into the stem locking of the break-groove when
sides of the hole and the forming a consistently larger groove. This forms a stem travel is stopped by
gap between the sheets. blind side bearing area. permanent mechanical lock. the sleeve's internal step.
(6) Huck rivets (see Figure 4-11) are available in two head styles: protruding and flush.
They are available in four diameters: 1/8, 5/32, 3/16, and 1/4 inch. Their diameters are measured
in increments of 1/32 inch and lengths are measured in 1/16 inch increments. They are
manufactured in three different combinations of alloys: 5056 aluminum sleeve with 2024
aluminum alloy pin, A-286 corrosion-resistant steel sleeve with an A-286 pin, and a Monel 400
sleeve with an A-286 pin. The Huck fastener has the ability to tightly draw up two or more
sheets of metal together while being installed. After the take up of the Huck fastener is
completed, the lockring is squeezed into a groove on the pulling stem. The anvil or footer (of the
installation tool) packs the ring into the groove of the pulling stem by bearing against the

[AC 43.13-1B p. 4-32]

FIGURE 4-11. HUCK RIVET
(7) Common pull-type POP rivets, produced for nonaircraft related applications, are not
approved for use on certificated aircraft structures or components.
g. Design a new or revised rivet pattern for strength required in accordance with one of the
(1) The aircraft manufacturer’s maintenance manuals.
(2) The techniques found in structural textbooks and using the mechanical properties
| found in MIL-HDBK-5 or MMPDS-10.
(3) The specific instructions in subparagraphs 4-58g through 4-58n. When following
the instructions in subparagraphs 4-58¢ through 4-58n, the general rule for the diameter of the
rivets used to join aluminum sheets is to use a diameter approximately three times the thickness

[AC 43.13-1B p. 4-38]

FIGURE 4-15. TYPICAL REPAIRS OF TRAILING EDGES
"A" ,040" 2017-T3 SPACER 2D,3D 30 2D2D 3D 3D 20
"B" 2024-T3 SPLICE BAR wat TTT
iby  «- _t_ Jf fap
i. FR ekkomeon Romomen
oa See een
¢; 2117-AD RIVETS al Lo
3/32 DIA. MIN, CRACK
2117-AD RIVETS :
A 3/32" DIA. MIN. 5 A A : 72 A—><—A 27
4h, 7 a ee es ee
iil a, ia iia i
‘> 4 A '’ | } ' ' 1 {
“| fH -6—-6— 6} -6---6--6—-
4 3A 3A
|. STRAIGHTEN CRIMPED OVER PORTION. GRACK
2. INSERT HARDWOOD (ASH) INSERT SHAPED.
TO CONFORM TO T.E. PIEGE.
2117-AD RIVETS 2D A 202D A 2p D0
9/22" DIA. MIN, i
ae hae 12 Ore -—-Si——}
4 |= 4 "oR SOK KIN
Xe S27 __ YY NS,
FLATTEN HEADS
(APPROX. 1.5¢ ) OUTSIDE
1. STRAIGHTEN CRIMPED PORTION. GRAGK
2.USE SAME AL. ALLOY AS IN ORIGINAL.

[AC 43.13-1B p. 4-54]

FIGURE 4-24. TYPICAL REPAIRS TO RUDDER AND TO FUSELAGE AT TAIL POST
an Wiis. < are
HORN P Rib 5
TY —l “3j FUSELAGE (TOP)? "ty \
ree SE ccs os we FAILUR
Se a png 9 4
| | FUSELAGE (SIDE)
NOTE: USE SAME MATERIAL, NEXT HEAVIER GAUGE FOR REINFORGEMENT.

[AC 43.13-1B p. 4-66]

FIGURE 4-26. COMMON DEFECTS TO AVOID WHEN FITTING AND WELDING
AIRCRAFT CERTIFICATION CLUSTER
CoB Nes
A—INCOMPLETE ROOT PENETRATION
B—INSUFFICIENT PENETRATION ON
THICK PLATE
C—POOR TUBE FIT AND POOR PENETRATION
D—SATISFACTORY WELD
4-80. NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING. Nondestructive testing or evaluation is advisable in
critical applications. Nondestructive testing methods such as; magnetic particle, liquid penetrant,
radiography, ultrasonic, eddy current, and acoustic emission can be used; however, they require
trained and qualified people to apply them.
4-81. PRACTICES TO GUARD AGAINST. Do not file or grind welds in an effort to create
a smooth appearance, as such treatment causes a loss of strength. Do not fill welds with solder,
brazing metal, or any other filler. When it is necessary to weld a joint which was previously
welded, remove all of the old weld material before rewelding. Avoid welding over a weld,
because reheating may cause the material to lose its strength and become brittle. Never weld a
joint which has been previously brazed.
4-82. TORCH SIZE (Oxyacetylene welding). When using oxyacetylene welding, the torch
tip size depends upon the thickness of the material to be welded. Commonly used sizes, proven
satisfactory by experience, are shown in Table 4-13.
TABLE 4-13. TORCH TIP SIZES
Thickness trance Diameter of Hole in Tip Drill Size
0.015 to 0.031 0.026
0.031 to 0.065 0.031 ee ee
0.065 to 0.125 0.037
0.125 to 0.188 0.042
0.188 to 0.250 0.055
0.250 to 0.375 0.067
4-83. WELDING RODS AND ELECTRODES. Use welding rods and electrodes that are
compatible with the materials to be welded. Welding rods and electrodes for various applications
have special properties suitable for the application intended. Lap welds are used in shear
applications. The weld throat of the fillet weld is considered the plane 45 degrees to the surface

[AC 43.13-1B p. 4-68]

4-86. TYPES OF WELDING.
a. Gas Welding. A fuel gas such as acetylene or hydrogen is mixed inside a welding torch
with oxygen to produce a flame with a temperature of around 6,300 °F (3,482 °C). This flame is
used to melt the materials to be welded. A filler rod is melted into the puddle of molten metal to
reinforce the weld. When highly reactive metals such as aluminum are gas welded, they must be
covered with flux to exclude oxygen from the molten metal and keep oxides from forming which
would decrease the strength of the weld. (An illustration of a carburizing flame, a neutral flame,
and an oxidizing flame is shown in Figure 4-28.)
FIGURE 4-28. BASIC GAS-WELDING FLAMES: EACH HAS A DISTINCTIVE SHAPE,
COLOR, AND SOUND; NEUTRAL FLAME IS THE MOST USED
CARBURIZING FLAME
LARGE LIGHT-BLUE (EXCESS ACETYLENE) NO HISSING SOUND
VERY LIGHT- BLUE WITH COARSE
GREEN OUTER WHITE TINGE FEATHERED
FEATHER END
NEUTRAL FLAME
(EQUAL AMOUNTS OF ACETYLENE AND OXYGEN)
BLUE WITH WIDE, COARSE
WHITE TINGE FEATHERED END
OXIDIZING FLAME
(EXCESS OXYGEN)
SMALL WHITE SLUE WITH
CONE WHITE TINGE LOUD HISSING SOUND
b. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW). This method is the most familiar and common
type and is known in the trade as stick welding. A metal wire rod coated with a welding flux is
clamped in an electrode holder connected to the power supply with a heavy electrical cable. The
metal to be welded is also attached to the power supply. The electrical power 1s supplied to the
work at a low voltage and high current and may be either AC or DC, depending upon the type of
welding being done. An arc is struck between the rod and the work and produces heat in excess
of 10,000 °F, which melts both the material and the rod. As the flux melts, it releases an inert gas
which shields the molten puddle from oxygen in the air and prevents oxidation. The molten flux
covers the weld and hardens to an airtight slag cover that protects the weld bead as it cools. This
slag must be chipped off to examine the weld.
c. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW). This method of welding was formerly called Metal
Inert Gas (MIG) welding, and is an improvement over stick welding because an uncoated wire
electrode is fed into the torch and an inert gas such as argon, helium, or carbon dioxide flows out
around the wire to protect the puddle from oxygen. The power supply connects between the torch
and the work, and the are produces the intense heat needed to melt the work and the electrode.
Low-voltage high-current DC is used almost exclusively with GMAW welding. GMAW is used
more for large-volume production work than for aircraft repair.

[AC 43.13-1B p. 4-69]

d. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW). This is the form of electric arc welding that fills
most of the needs in aircraft maintenance. It is more commonly known as tungsten inert gas
| (TIG) welding.
(1) Rather than using a consumable electrode such as is used in both of the other two
methods we have discussed, the electrode in TIG welding is a tungsten rod. (In earlier
procedures using this form of welding, a carbon electrode was used, but it has been replaced
almost exclusively with tungsten.)
(2) The 250+ amp arc between the electrode and the work melts the metal at 5,432 °F,
and a filler rod is manually fed into the molten puddle. A stream of inert gas such as argon or
helium flows out of the torch and envelopes the arc, thereby preventing the formation of oxides
in the puddle.
(3) The versatility of TIG welding is increased by the power supply that is used. DC of
either polarity or AC may be used. (See Figures 4-29 and 4-30.)
FIGURE 4-29. SET TIG WELDER TO DC CURRENT, STRAIGHT POLARITY FOR
WELDING MILD STEEL, STAINLESS STEEL, AND TITANIUM
| | STRAIGHT POLARITY

[AC 43.13-1B p. 4-70]

FIGURE 4-30. SET TIG TO AC CURRENT FOR WELDING ALUMINUM
AND MAGNESIUM
A-C WITH a Pot
HIGH FREQUENCY | _
4-87. ELECTRIC-RESISTANCE WELDING. Many thin sheet metal parts for aircraft,
especially stainless steel parts, are joined by one of the forms of electric resistance welding,
either spot welding or seam welding.
a. Spot Welding. Two copper electrodes are held in the jaws of the spot welding machine,
and the material to be welded is clamped between them. Pressure is applied to hold the
electrodes tightly together, and electrical current flows through the electrodes and the material.
The resistance of the material being welded is so much higher than that of the copper electrodes
that enough heat is generated to melt the metal. The pressure on the electrodes forces the molten
spots in the two pieces of metal to unite, and this pressure is held after the current stops flowing
| long enough for the metal to solidify. Refer to MIL-HDBK-S5 or MMPDS-10 for joint
construction and strength data. The amount of current, pressure, and dwell time are all carefully
controlled and matched to the type of material and the thickness to produce the correct spot
welds. (See Figure 4-31.)

[AC 43.13-1B p. 4-73]

(a) The principal use of silver brazing in aircraft work is in the fabrication of
high-pressure oxygen lines and other parts which must withstand vibration and high
temperatures. Silver brazing is used extensively to join copper (and its alloys), nickel, silver,
various combinations of these metals, and thin steel parts. Silver brazing produces joints of
higher strength than those produced by other brazing processes.
(b) It is necessary to use flux in all silver-brazing operations, because of the
necessity for having the base metal chemically clean, (without the slightest film of oxide to
prevent the silver-brazing alloy from coming into intimate contact with the base metal).
(c) The joint must be physically and chemically clean, which means it must be free
of all dirt, grease, oil, and paint. After removing the dirt, grease, and paint, any oxide should be
removed by grinding or filing the piece until bright metal can be seen. During the soldering
operation, the flux continues the process of keeping oxide away from the metal and aids the flow
(d) In Figure 4-32, three types of joints for silver brazing are shown: flanged butt,
lap, and edge joints. If a lap joint is used, the amount of lap should be determined according to
the strength needed in the joint. For strength equal to that of the base metal in the heated zone,
the amount of lap should be four to six times the metal thickness.
FIGURE 4-32. SILVER BRAZING JOINTS
LAP FLANGED BUTT
JOINT JOINT
aman Lith.
(e) The oxyacetylene flame for silver brazing should be neutral, but may have a
slight excess of acetylene. It must be soft, not harsh. During both preheating and application of
the solder, the tip of the inner cone of the flame should be held about 1/2 inch from the work.
The flame should be kept moving so that the metal will not become overheated.
(f) When both parts of the base metal are at the right temperature (indicated by the
flow of flux), brazing alloy can be applied to the surface of the under or inner part at the edge of
the seam. It is necessary to simultaneously direct the flame over the seam, and keep moving it so
that the base metal remains at an even temperature.

[AC 43.13-1B p. 4-74]

(3) The torch can be shut off simply by closing the acetylene off first and allowing the
gas remaining in the torch tip to burn out. Then turn off the oxygen valve. If the torch is not to be
used again for a long period, the pressure should be turned off at the cylinder. The hose lines
should then be relieved of pressure by opening the torch needle valves and the working pressure
regulator, one at a time, allowing the gas to escape. Again, it is a good practice to relieve the
oxygen pressure and then the acetylene pressure. The hose should then be coiled or hung
carefully to prevent damage or kinking.
(4) Soft soldering is used chiefly for copper, brass, and coated iron in combination with
mechanical seams; that is, seams that are riveted, bolted, or folded. It is also used where a
leak-proof joint is desired, and sometimes for fitting joints to promote rigidity and prevent
corrosion. Soft soldering is generally performed only in very minor repair jobs. This process 1s
used to join electrical connections because it forms a strong union with low electrical resistance.
(a) Soft solder gradually yields under a steadily applied load and should not be used
unless the transmitted loads are very low. It should never be used as a means of joining structural
(b) A soldering iron is the tool used in soldering. Its purpose is to act as a source of
heat for the soldering operation. The bit, or working face, is made from copper since this metal
will readily absorb heat and transmit it to the work. Figure 4-33 shows a wedge-shaped bit.
FIGURE 4-33. ELECTRIC SOLDERING IRON
(c) To tin the soldering iron, it is first heated to a bright red, and then the point is
cleaned (by filing) until it is smooth and bright. No dirt or pits should remain on its surface. After
the soldering iron has been mechanically cleaned, it should be reheated sufficiently to melt
solder and chemically cleaned by rubbing it firmly on a block of sal ammoniac (ammonium
chloride). Rosin flux paste may also be used. Solder is then applied to the point and wiped with a
clean cloth.
(d) A properly tinned copper iron has a thin unbroken film of solder over the entire
surface of its point.
(e) Soft solders are chiefly alloys of tin and lead. The percentages of tin and lead
vary considerably in various solder, with a corresponding change in their melting points, ranging
from 145-311 °C (293-592 °F). Half-and-half (50/50) solder is a general purpose solder and is
most frequently used. It contains equal proportions of tin and lead, and it melts at approximately
182 °C (360 °F).

[AC 43.13-1B p. 4-77]

FIGURE 4-34. FINGER PATCH REPAIRS FOR MEMBERS DENTED AT A CLUSTER
LONGERON DENTED AT A STATION.
_ 158 oq
+ rr an THICKNESS OF PATCH PLATE
abe SAME AS LONGERON
PATCH PLATE BEFORE FORMING AND WELDING.
PATCH PLATE FORMED AND WELDED TO TUBES.
d. Members Dented in a Bay. Repair dented, bent, cracked, or otherwise damaged
tubular members by using a split-sleeve reinforcement. Carefully straighten the damaged
member, and in the case of cracks, drill No. 40 (0.098 inch) stop holes at the ends of the crack.
4-92. REPAIR BY WELDED SLEEVE. This repair is outlined in Figure 4-35. Select a
length of steel tube sleeve having an inside diameter approximately equal to the outside diameter
of the damaged tube and of the same material, and at least the same wall thickness. Diagonally
cut the sleeve reinforcement at a 30-degree angle on both ends so that the minimum distance of
the sleeve from the edge of the crack or dent is not less than 1-1/2 times the diameter of the
damaged tube. Cut through the entire length of the reinforcement sleeve, and separate the
half-sections of the sleeve. Clamp the two sleeve sections to the proper positions on the affected
areas of the original tube. Weld the reinforcement sleeve along the length of the two sides, and
weld both ends of the sleeve to the damaged tube. (See Figure 4-35.) The filling of dents or
cracks with welding rod in lieu of reinforcing the member is not acceptable.

[AC 43.13-1B p. 4-79]

4-93. REPAIR BY BOLTED SLEEVE. Do not use bolted-sleeve repairs on welded steel-tube
structure unless specifically authorized by the manufacturer or the FAA. The tube area removed
by the bolt holes, in this type of repair, may prove critical.
4-94, WELDED-PATCH REPAIR. Dents or holes in tubing may be repaired by using a patch
of the same material, one gauge thicker. (See Figure 4-36.)
FIGURE 4-36. WELDED-PATCH REPAIR
+ bia 3 cue. in GREATER THAN "A
: +———2A 2aA——>
a. Dented Tubing.
(1) Dents are not deeper than 1/10 of tube diameter, do not involve more than 1/4 of the
tube circumference, and are not longer than tube diameter.
(2) Dents are free from cracks, abrasions, and sharp corners.
(3) The dented tubing can be substantially reformed, without cracking, before
application of the patch.
b. Punctured Tubing. Holes are not longer than tube diameter and involve not more than
1/4 of tube circumference.
4-95. SPLICING TUBING BY INNER-SLEEVE METHOD. If the damage to a structural
tube is such that a partial replacement of the tube is necessary, the inner-sleeve splice is
recommended; especially where a smooth tube surface is desired. (See Figure 4-37.)
a. Make a diagonal cut when removing the damaged portion of the tube, and remove the
burr from the edges of the cut by filing or similar means. Diagonally cut a replacement steel tube
of the same material and diameter, and at least the same wall thickness, to match the length of
the removed portion of the damaged tube. At each end of the replacement tube allow a 1/8-inch
gap from the diagonal cuts to the stubs of the original tube. Select a length of steel tubing of the
same material, and at least the same wall thickness, and of an outside diameter equal to the inside
diameter of the damaged tube. Fit this inner-sleeve tube material snugly within the original tube,
with a maximum diameter difference of 1/16 inch. From this inner-sleeve tube material cut two

[AC 43.13-1B p. 6-25]

= 2 3
4 |2
i) jaa jaa jaa
7 |238 Oo a é a
a 22x a ~ Ey Say on Ew
HD |\sxS ZOZ BZOZ BZOZ BZOZ
oO |< ale > tla > toe ><a
oOo oOo
nm |°\S2 |58 Be
mw 2/22 |84 ae
> ra a & 3% 3%
ps 2/2 ne ne ne o o
< |2/G2 |§ E E E E
= |2/58 |6& © & © &  &  &
me |e 6aZ eC) 6 aZ eC) 6 az eC) 6aZ 9/2 9
< & Axte|Zi axes Zl|ax<¢_ Z|ax<¢_ Z|4g 2Z
ZOoltlRARl| wok z7|eos A~l|eZos nAl\a_n
= SHz2\Z2/Sa2 |Z|/S552 |Z|S8e2 (2/322
° OsMO]H |/UHRO Bl}owo oa }OUsrO Bote
2 i 55 ow
a 5685 |28sx22
z 2082 |8599
~ AnvLA Awan
aALEe |a 5 5 5 B wn
00 “HOOD |O> Sra.§ = o> 5
ron REE S Zo Oona ia) 6 OQ < Ne}
E es°2 |f3 |23288 /82 25 : :
& zz & [ES 2zh02 |O= S= F &

[AC 43.13-1B p. 7-26]

selected for any application should be the largest size that will fit consistent with the diameter of
the cotter pin hole and/or the slots in the nut. Cotter pins should not be reused on aircraft.
b. To prevent injury during and after pin installation, the end of the cotter pin can be
rolled and tucked.
NOTE: In using the method of cotter pin safetying, as shown in Figures 7-6
and 7-7, ensure the prong, bent over the bolt, is seated firmly against the bolt
shank, and does not exceed bolt diameter. Also, when the prong is bent over
the nut, ensure the bent prong is down and firmly flat against the nut and
does not contact the surface of the washer.
FIGURE 7-6. SECURING WITH COTTER PINS
FIGURE 7-7. ALTERNATE METHOD FOR SECURING WITH COTTER PINS
7  2—
ALN aia
S S23
60°
HEAD SNUG \Z ALTERNATE
7-128.—7-139. [RESERVED.]

[AC 43.13-1B p. 8-9]

FIGURE 8-1. SCHEMATIC OF DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE COMPRESSION TESTER
AIR SOURCE
(4) As the regulated air pressure is applied to one side of the restrictor orifice with the
air valve closed, there will be no leakage on the other side of the orifice, and both pressure
gauges will read the same. However, when the air valve is opened and leakage through the
cylinder increases, the cylinder pressure gauge will record a proportionally lower reading.
(5) While performing the check, the following procedures are listed to outline the
principles involved and are intended to supplement the manufacturer’s instructions for the
particular tester being used.
(a) Perform the compression test as soon as possible after the engine is shut down to
ensure that the piston rings, cylinder walls, and other engine parts are well lubricated.
(b) Remove the most accessible spark plug from each cylinder.
(c) With the air valve closed, apply an external source of clean air (approximately
100 to 120 pounds per square inch (ps1)) to the tester.

[AC 43.13-1B p. 8-28]

SECTION 3. EXHAUST SYSTEMS
8-45. GENERAL. Any exhaust system failure should be regarded as a severe hazard.
Depending upon the location and type of failure, it can result in carbon monoxide (CO)
poisoning of crew and passengers, partial or complete engine power loss, or fire. Exhaust system
failures generally reach a maximum rate of occurrence at 100 to 200 hours’ operating time, and
over 50 percent of the failures occur within 400 hours.
8-46. MUFFLER/HEAT EXCHANGER FAILURES. Approximately one-half of all exhaust
system failures are traced to cracks or ruptures in the heat exchanger surfaces used for cabin and
carburetor air heat sources.
a. Failures in the heat exchanger’s surface (usually the muffler’s outer wall) allow
exhaust gases to escape directly into the cabin heat system. The failures are, for the most part,
attributed to thermal and vibration fatigue cracking in the areas of stress concentration,
e.g., tailpipe and stack, inlet-attachment areas (see Figures 8-13 through 8-16).
FIGURE 8-13. TYPICAL MUFFLER WALL FATIGUE FAILURE AT EXHAUST
OUTLET. (A. COMPLETE MUFFLER ASSEMBLY WITH HEAT SHROUD
REMOVED; B. DETAIL VIEW OF FAILURE)
ES Col gp KO REY NS
. ‘ oN . ° ie. “4 Bia c - . vom ‘.
7 Pee \ Bec:

[AC 43.13-1B p. 8-29]

FIGURE 8-14. TYPICAL MUFFLER WALL FAILURE. (A. COMPLETE MUFFLER
ASSEMBLY WITH HEAT SHROUD REMOVED; B. DETAIL VIEW OF FAILURE;
C. CROSS-SECTION OF FAILED MUFFLER)
git af Oh « 8% | aaa
l=—\ae © pif ear
(a) ee ae may! SAN Jn usgeitie
j 20 Sef = NT. | CORRES aol
Time a ry \) eee
il | | ee - oe 4 2 rar FLO
ie 3 3 29

[AC 43.13-1B p. 8-30]

FIGURE 8-15. TYPICAL MUFFLER WALL FATIGUE FAILURE. (A. COMPLETE
MUFFLER ASSEMBLY WITH HEAT SHROUD PARTIALLY REMOVED;
B. DETAILED VIEW OF FAILURE)
FIGURE 8-16. TYPICAL FATIGUE FAILURE OF MUFFLER END PLATE AT STACK
b. Failures of the spot welds which attach heat transfer pins, as shown in Figure 8-14,
image A, can result in exhaust gas leakage. In addition to the CO hazard, failure of heat
exchanger surfaces can permit exhaust gases to be drawn into the engine induction system and
cause engine overheating and power loss.
8-47. MANIFOLD/STACK FAILURES. Exhaust manifold and stack failures are also usually
fatigue-type failures, which occur at welded or clamped joints (e.g., stack-to-flange,
stack-to-manifold, muffler connections, or crossover pipe connections). Although these failures
are primarily a fire hazard, they also present a CO problem. Exhaust gases can enter the cabin via

[AC 43.13-1B p. 8-31]

defective or inadequate seals at firewall openings, wing strut fittings, doors, and wing root
openings. Manifold/stack failures, which account for approximately 20 percent of all exhaust
system failures, reach a maximum rate of occurrence at about 100 hours’ operating time. Over
50 percent of the failures occur within 300 hours.
8-48. INTERNAL MUFFLER FAILURES. Internal failures (baffles, diffusers, etc.) can cause
partial or complete engine power loss by restricting the flow of the exhaust gases (see
Figures 8-17 through 8-20). As opposed to other failures, erosion and carbonizing caused by the
extreme thermal conditions are the primary causes of internal failures. Engine after-firing and
combustion of unburned fuel within the exhaust system are probable contributing factors.
FIGURE 8-17. SECTION OF A MUFFLER SHOWING TYPICAL INTERNAL BAFFLE
FIGURE 8-18. LOOSE PIECES OF A FAILED INTERNAL BAFFLE
Bas @ C7 \, 4

[AC 43.13-1B p. 8-32]

FIGURE 8-19. FAILED INTERNAL BAFFLE PARTIALLY OBSTRUCTING THE
MUFFLER OUTLET
FIGURE 8-20. FAILED INTERNAL BAFFLE COMPLETELY OBSTRUCTING THE
MUFFLER OUTLET
ae lees 3 eee cd >:
a. In addition, local hot spot areas caused by uneven exhaust gas flow result in burning,
bulging, and rupture of the outer muffler wall (see Figure 8-14). As might be expected, the time
required for these failures to develop is longer than that for fatigue failures. Internal muffler
failures account for nearly 20 percent of the total number of exhaust system failures.
b. The highest rate of internal muffler failures occurs between 500 and 750 hours of
operating time. Engine power loss and excessive backpressure caused by exhaust outlet blockage
may be averted by the installation of an exhaust outlet guard as shown in Figures 8-21a
and 8-21b. The outlet guard may be fabricated from a 3/16-inch stainless steel welding rod.

[AC 43.13-1B p. 8-33]

FIGURE 8-21a. EXAMPLE OF EXHAUST OUTLET GUARD
FIGURE 8-21b. EXAMPLE OF EXHAUST OUTLET GUARD INSTALLED
c. Form the rod into two U-shaped segments, approximately 3-inches long, and weld
onto the exhaust tail pipe, as shown in Figure 8-21b, so that the guard will extend 2 inches inside
the exhaust muffler outlet port. Installation of an exhaust outlet guard does not negate the
importance of thorough inspection of the internal parts of the muffler or the necessity of
replacing defective mufflers.
8-49. INSPECTION. Inspect exhaust systems frequently to ascertain complete system integrity.
CAUTION: Marking of exhaust system parts. Never use lead pencils,
carbon-based pencils, etc., to mark exhaust system parts. Carbon deposited
by those tools will cause cracks from heat concentration and carbonization of
the metal. If exhaust system parts must be marked, use chalk, Prussian blue,
India ink, or a grease pencil that is carbon-free.
a. Before any cleaning operation, remove the cowling as required to expose the complete
exhaust system. Examine cowling and nacelle areas adjacent to exhaust system components for
telltale signs of exhaust gas soot indicating possible leakage points. Check to make sure no
portion of the exhaust system is being chafed by cowling, engine control cables, or other
components. The exhaust system often operates at red-hot temperatures of 1,000 °F or more;
therefore, parts such as ignition leads, hoses, fuel lines, and flexible air ducts should be protected
from radiation and convection heating by heat shields or adequate clearance.
b. Remove or loosen all exhaust shields, carburetor and cabin heater muffs, shrouds, heat
blankets, etc., required to permit inspection of the complete system.

[AC 43.13-1B p. 8-34]

c. Perform necessary cleaning operations and inspect all external surfaces of the
exhaust system for cracks, dents, and missing parts. Pay particular attention to welds, clamps,
supports and support attachment lugs, bracing, slip joints, stack flanges, gaskets, flexible
couplings, etc. (see Figures 8-22 and 8-23). Examine the heel of each bend, areas adjacent to
welds, any dented areas, and low spots in the system for thinning and pitting due to internal
erosion by combustion products or accumulated moisture. An ice pick (or similar pointed
instrument) is useful in probing suspected areas. Disassemble the system as necessary to inspect
internal baffles or diffusers.
FIGURE 8-22. EFFECT OF IMPROPERLY POSITIONED EXHAUST PIPE/MUFFLER

[AC 43.13-1B p. 8-35]

FIGURE 8-23. PRIMARY INSPECTION AREAS
A-Separate Systems
(PIAS INES : 3
B-Crossover-type System
SESK i. “2 1h
L-Exnaust/Augmernttor syste
d. Should a component be inaccessible for a thorough visual inspection or hidden by
nonremovable parts, remove the component and check for possible leaks by plugging its
openings, applying approximately 2 psi internal pressure, and submerging it in water. Any leaks
will cause bubbles that can be readily detected. Dry thoroughly before reinstallation.
8-50. REPAIRS. It is generally recommended that exhaust stacks, mufflers, tailpipes, etc., be
replaced with new or reconditioned components rather than repaired. Welded repairs to exhaust
systems are complicated by the difficulty of accurately identifying the base metal so that the
proper repair materials can be selected. Changes in composition and grain structure of the
original base metal further complicates the repair. However, when welded repairs are necessary,
follow the general procedures outlined in Chapter 4 of this AC. Retain the original contours and
make sure that the completed repair has not warped or otherwise affected the alignment of the

[AC 43.13-1B p. 8-39]

FIGURE 8-26. METHOD OF REPAIRING DAMAGED TIP OF ALUMINUM-ALLOY
REFERENCE EDGE OF TEMPLATE
PENCIL LINE DRAWN ON BLADE AT
OUTLINE OF SELECTED STATION FOR TEMPLATE
NEW_ TIP. REFERENCE.
| Z w PLAN VIEW OF BLADE
| [y’ WITH DAMAGED TIP.
SHEET ALUMINUM ' LEADING EDGE
TIP TEMPLATE. ALL;
BLADES ON THE SAME
PROPELLER MUST BE
SHORTENED EXACTLY
THE SAME.
ENLARGED SIDE VIEW OF TIP OF BLADE
DOTTED LINE SHOWS SIDE VIEW
OF NEW TIP AFTER CUTTING DOWN.

[AC 43.13-1B p. 8-40]

FIGURE 8-27. EXAMPLE 1: DETERMINE THE REPAIR WIDTH LIMITS
“SBR RaR ASHE EEE ee RA
O 4s RARER RARER RRS SRR RRS RSS
. Wy R Rae Sit BEER RAE RUE RRR SA EPRMEE WRB ie
s “CCCP sepuctions srownare me PT
eof tt TT TT immu omensionsreaurcosyt tt 1 i] i | 1A t |
® “CET TTL mestaceorawncanostace | | | Tt | | | 7T Ty
= . be: Pall ub A MANUFACTURING SPECIFICATION. BESRRHRERAR iae
QS ee ele ei Te bee et ey
tele ee EE Er eee
ie BS PRR eS RRR EESEERSRESP Res
S CT ELEEE EEE EET EE LEI EEL LYE rE
JA FESS SRR OL RROD EDR SRE RE RAO
{PR RES HAS ARRR SRR RSE RRS ERR SBR RE
2) RED SRE REREAD RRR eee
Qa. BEREAN eee
= BEGMER BRAS RRA ERE UTR
SSR SSSR ERESRESSRREERERP ARE EReR Ee
SAAR RRR ARRGR RRR ERS BRR ERE
FP Sea aE RASS KORE
Sr ast i pe coker te ee ELE
BERADREIAs! ARR HOoRe eA
(HPWH aR RA RAB BAR EARS ERR ESTOS
10 20 30 40 60 60 70 80 30
RADIUS - PERCENT OF REPAIRED BLADE RADIUS.
a. Draw a vertical line at the value of 7% = 38 on the horizontal axis.
b. Where the vertical line intersects the curve, draw a horizontal line to the nght to
intersect the vertical axis.
c. Read the percent reduction in width (Aw®) on the vertical axis at this intersection.
Aw% = 2.5
b. Shortening Blades. Shortening propeller blades is a major repair. When the removal or
treatment of defects on the tip necessitates shortening a blade, shorten each blade used with it
and keep such sets of blades together (see Figure 8-26 for acceptable methods). Mark the
shortened blades to correspond with the manufacturer’s system of model designation to indicate
propeller diameter. In making the repair, it is not permissible to reduce the propeller diameter
below the minimum diameter limit shown on the pertinent specification or Type Certificate Data
Sheet (TCDS).
c. Straighten Propeller Blades. Never straighten a damaged propeller. Even partial
straightening of blades to permit shipment to a certificated propeller repair facility may result in
hidden damage not being detected and an unairworthy propeller being returned to service.
8-74. REPAIR LIMITS. The following limits are those listed in the blade manufacturing
specification for aluminum-alloy blades and govern the width and thickness of new blades.
These limits are to be used with the pertinent blade drawing to determine the minimum original

[AC 43.13-1B p. 8-41]

blade dimensions to which the reduction of Figure 8-27 and Figure 8-28 may be applied. When
repairs reduce the width or thickness of the blade below these limits, reject the blade. The face
alignment or track of the propeller should fall within the limits recommended by the
manufacturer for new propellers.
FIGURE 8-28. EXAMPLE 2: DETERMINE THE REPAIR THICKNESS LIMITS
he) SRA WR RRR ELMER ae
fe RET AOR ARERR CORA PRA Rae
3 F PUNK AHREHMDER ERAS SENTRA
Pe RBA ROR BADR RSESSREHSSRHR ASST STE
“Qe ME SPS REM. 4 14 a ee Oe
© CITT TTT mestaveorawncanosrave | TT TT TT TTT
SSSR RR EE Mow eee IRE A
SHARAD BRSBRERRRSHSSESSSSARER AF ERE
FA PRON EDR RE RRORERReR
ej ARR AHRETRE SAREE DRONE ae
S ATT TTT tte a
RPL ARAMAIC RAO SAGER Veo
2 v3) S69 aR A Sa SB HAR SG ES SG El la Re SS te A ES Se eS i
$B GRATE GRRRRESRARRRR RRA RP eRe
Bs BOOUPAUENT MOROCCAN de
BRAMEERCAHA RET HE KEN A ER ENE S Rae DT
- APAGAL GAGA OKCCACEA ATA 42h eseeas
‘TA SSSR SSERESSSRARBREST I CER TRH RSH
AUP RARER PAMAR ORDERS EAR VAR RE MED E
AONE AEA SAR RRA
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 30
RADIUS - PERCENT OF REPAIRED BLADE RADIUS,
a. Draw a vertical line at the value of r% = 68 on the horizontal axis.
b. Where the vertical line intersects the curve, draw a horizontal line to the mght to inter-
sect the vertical axis.
c. Read the percent reduction in thickness (Ar%) on the vertical axis intersection
Ar% = 4.0
a. No repairs are permitted to the shanks (roots or hub ends) of aluminum-alloy,
adjustable-pitch blades. The shanks must be within manufacturer’s limits.
b. The following two examples show how to determine the allowable repair limits on
aluminum-alloy blades.
(1) Example 1. Determine the blade width repair allowable (Aw) and minimum blade
width limit (w1) for a blade having a diameter (d) of 10 ft 6 in. The repair location (71) 1s 24 in
from the shank, and the original, as manufactured, blade width (w) at the repair location is
1.88 in.

[AC 43.13-1B p. 8-43]

metal hub manufacturer or the engine manufacturer, as applicable. Obtain from the engine or
propeller hub manufacturer suitable flange bushings with threaded or smooth bores, as illustrated
in methods (A) or (B) of Figure 8-29. Drill the flange and insert the bushings as recommended
by the propeller to accommodate the bushings and protect the holes with two coats of aluminum
paint or other high moisture-resistant coating. Use bolts of the same size as those originally used.
Any of the following combinations may be used: (1) drilled head bolt and castellated nut,
(2) drilled head bolt and threaded bushing, or (3) undrilled bolt and self-locking nut. Where it is
desirable to use oversized bolts, obtain suitable aircraft-standard bolts 1/16-inch larger than the
original bolts. Enlarge the crankshaft propeller flange holes and the propeller hub holes
sufficiently to accommodate the new bolts without more than 0.005-inch clearance. Such
reboring will be permitted only once. Further repairs of bolt holes may be in accordance with the
methods listed in (A) or (B) of Figure 8-29.
FIGURE 8-29. REPAIR OF FIXED-PITCH HUB AND PROPELLER WITH
ELONGATED OR DAMAGED BOLT HOLES
WOOD HUB OF PROPELLER WOOD HUB OF PROPELLER
l f —<X i RS tet ; @Ytsy |
(Vor S ™12) ~(1)
% De= 1/4" LARGER
THAN BOLT SIZE
METHOD (A) METHOD (8)
REPAIR OF DAMAGED OR ELONGATED BOLT HOLES REPAIR OF ELONGATED BOLT HOLES
IN PROPELLER HUB FLANGES. iN PROPELLER.
(1) ORILLEO BOLT WITH CASTELATED NUT OR UNDRILLED BOLT WITH SELF-
LOCKING NUT.
(2) BOLT WITH HEAD DRILLED FOR SAFETY WIRING.
NOTE; THESE REPAIRS ARE PERMITTED ONLY ON THE DRIVING FLANGE OF THE
PROPELLER HUB AND THE ADJACENT FACE OF THE PROPELLER.
NOTE: Method (A) or (B) is preferred over the oversized bolt method
because a propeller hub flange redrilled in accordance with this latter
method will always require the redrilling of all new propellers subsequently
used with the redrilled flange.
8-77. CONTROL SYSTEMS. Components used to control the operation of certificated
propellers should be inspected, repaired, assembled, and/or tested in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations. Only those repairs which are covered by the manufacturer’s

[AC 43.13-1B p. 11-35]

FIGURE 11-2. CONDUCTOR CHART, CONTINUOUS FLOW
TOO} 11S) 2] 4 i i 2 | 4 7 is a) .] a0 ”
HOO | 208 | 100 sommes sesame nenees 7 Fag oT , Fe TV v0
60} 300] 9] 46 essen stsomeenenns 4 va 4 3 ' 20h
4601320) 80] 40 Ih cssaganaena A Z, , 5 et a
xen] 200] so] 25 4 7 AW Au oO Hy “Silt Fe, & f,
Jno} 160] 40) 20 y. waa ee tf3 rt
zZ 210} 120] Je] 1s A f. er. LY Ky ;
5 17s} sea] 25) 12 an aa aay Leas /|
= 140} HO] 207 10 fda, oo S a =,
Sur] sa] 6] ® es : w4 “1 i wai
= on) 56] 147 7 y Fir a3 -~ 4 4
a4] as] az] 6 4 AY, .
6s, MM % 4 co es fai) q =
ssh az] 8 pom
al wt 6] 3
~ = : ~ 24 2 20 18 16 14 12 0 $ 6 4 2 1 10 20 30 40
WIRE SIZE NOTE
wees: «=F XA VPLE + I VOLTAGE DROP CHART LENGTH (LI) IS BASED ON COND CTOR TEMPERATL RES
= ee COurMtocs row arze Of 2) DETERMINE LENCIN (2) At HIGHER CONDLCTOR
NO.8WIREAT20AMPS CONDUCTOR : ae
NO. 12 WIRE AT 20 AMPS iy = 2545)
AX No. 14. wine AT 20 amps CEA) + (0a)

[AC 43.13-1B p. 11-36]

FIGURE 11-3. CONDUCTOR CHART, INTERMITTENT FLOW
el Sete band! Fi i Ls 2 j 4 5 7 10 15 20 30 50 70
1600 | 400 1200 erere ren vr meen : Fz Fa ry
swolvo aff AVA LAL, AAW. 7
50
a WK? ! My } 42620 ‘a
ies els oe KY.
#40 | 480 120 | 60 os ZS ny Ae On 2 wave | Z4...J 300
Bj | 700] 400 | 100} so aa, rl Aa i ;
z 560 1120 | 80 | 40 4 | Ps Pg a Pe f| me PA
ES | 420 | 240 | 60 | 30 ‘ e 4
220 | 160 | 40 [20 pe VSL A a Pomofh 1
2 fala] |e PAA ae
£)8)(8|8) AAA A At :
168 | 96 | 24 [12 F; pf AY +7 r
126]72 |is}s A sai P—
2 | 64 [16 a Bo)
98 | S56 f 14
ned geal tad = ‘sas ae — a =
“ = - : 24 22 20 1&8 «616 14 12 10 & 6 4 2 1 WW Ww 40
LENGTH (LI) [S BASED ON CONDUCTOR TEMPERATURES OF 20° C
WIRE SIZE TO DETERMINE LENGTH (1.2) AT HIGHER CONDUCTOR TEMPERATURE USE FORMULA
WHERE T2 = ESTIMATED CONDUCTOR TEMPERATURE °C
VOLTAGE DROP CHART Lie (254.5) (L1}
INTERMITTENT FLOW AT 20° (234.5) + (12)
TIN-PLATED MIL-W-27759

[AC 43.13-1B p. 11-37]

FIGURE 11-4A. SINGLE COPPER WIRE IN FREE AIR
300 ET He OP LP ED eS ed
Stents ag astecestsow ets TP tar ea tne / mer imesaey Beratscty tet) Reisesa GASH asta S
HITMICITITThPwIRE SIZEt-26 +7} 44-1722 +.20 eagtas mi artit Pritt | eeeeetial
FUSS MISS OS SHRSLARROT SLATE CL aS SSH SHSCHE/ CGSITHREH ALGIY LH BOSS Seeceree seieviiee a
SUIS ISS RAPES SEAOC TESOL NOt ten ay cee GT LSPS ES SS SSSSS LOSES ETE! SHTET FIM LORE OSSSTEEEe see teee thai” ame
Hi edibed dt 4 Hesttetebtelbih [ey a 4 Fe tated ty Ht! Seabe shons’ sbeieiiimey daapacees csansineeiy”
iaeisiess beeed eats mest imaee sucess serstier sie ininiis a}eeates turin
} eben | /, tu ‘ ety
Pr PRIUEMiStSOROSERELADAGASIIGII(0((iiur ams nae Amo BORED SeRLR EAS Atie) AiliiciiMraedacans denstsiin) 4;
HUNAN UHSUBGHADALLL LLL A ay LR AB LRN UU Ur uty UNH RRNA UAY Suen ct
6 OFT eee
" a TAL va AUR CURUEREIDN) UE URRY AEE AU
Prey UES AREDEDREUEN%= 3°, A000"<\9) a AY AN NUN ANA
SIISISiISSSSESCSSES SSS Shlssseti ie Saas LSS SBRSSS LESS AS SSSESSEF LtSTIsi SiS {VS SSSTS! SISSSsIsisstits! aa
b J) siisisisisssaassszaes ssississst! meme Samm sm enee cons staciseae’ seseiesiny aap ates sacistieciiest 3) ame
Ww SHIRINISSSELIS SHS) Bey BHSr SSSSF Ss SEs sits’ SEETSIEE: SRESSIS’ SESLISIT i aes
pa )ecistee faseaceeseat eit seed seems em Gee Cee’ Cetetiae ceetticl :taeeesd catecienesitets aoe
Sistsis tes esstests Sessinttie: teeta’ Sarees Sa eaay Ses state cisr jstesistes ct isest .sssssiaestsitst ae
PMP ssisisinitsscastess: scsssicits tmestee Seas eee Semmes sue’ Scecsses Sssstitin: cttsses: ssasssesssrsterst s' ame
E 7o erlereie eeeeeroe SOOO TTECE: C0108 ey OS EERE SE CHESS SSS! SSTHHETETE FO tT R Se CH SRO SORE HEH T HOTT tre) Ee
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SCS HPSS ASES ANC EGENE 204) 0 RE, Se FF SESS EF SHE SESPSALE /SOSEHSEFE HHS LSS RASSSSSCAAHEES EEE ihe|
BO lHititipihnigptnin ft a ttt a Pit Pict ihe p hipaa Abrietessisetetet
Hite tte tibet tote ry HH Pa aaeeew Be’ eeeeecer Pet tetttey SCOe PLE) MSSSOSs Seeseereiet(e oe
SEO ARR RSS SOARRAEGE CFU ELE se ae Ge aes ERE) (OS HESE SOAS EGEEST FEUER L HH 1e OOH ORE Re Aa Rees teee i) 4) came
SCLP PSH PSS OST PSSST HSLT! COCK CT CC ee ES 6S SESE SS SHSS SSS! SST CSTST A PETOTIF TTT BOSSES SSSSTssetesleect S| aa
2 60 HH tt et tt ee
MM icc anrcattinin dich, Somepse mee Se eneEay GILG dauiun lREnEIRnoiLa
E Pry ciisisisiia’ SSSRSSEG 30th Re RS SST REESE SETS! sitesi i ae
Stlemicts seeetess) Feresitt J) ——(———o oe nat Saree Se een eer taseesteter isitituweeseeusessesettsiccct-:| ame
SESE SOHO SEE (ORCS OEE 68 EE SE SE EE 6 FEE EEE HEHEHE FS EEHE FETE FOF Ee OOO SRE SERCH EEE Ce)
Siisisiti SSSseres jsessssiss :sritrame’ acumen es wee’ se eee’ sates scassesse? sizitite eee secsserrccseresr te ames
Stiarare janaaase .8@neeaens aacitsa Amombann a sana @eeees @eaease sSenaeanse 2000016. 60 OS B66 06000006000 10001
SESS (SSO SEE CREO CSE EH CFCC Cy ee FOS OF SE ET OS EES FESS TESE! FETE TF ERE BEF OSE FCS esF Ee Feee te) ae
SCSPS! AR SSSSE! SOSH SCSS! HLS T Oy se SS SS! FSS SHS SHSSSSOT COS SSSESE! 41081 Ft LSS SESSSE SCE Sethe heRs the a
30 HHI EE eee
SCG PS NWS OS SE SSS SSCS TOC Sl) Ce a EE EHS SC SSS CIS CSTESE LACES SSS SSSSSA SCISSTTL STC S| oa
SUShs CSS SASS SSES SSCS SOLE T Et) ete ee ee Se SE SE OE OEE SHS SESOS SFE CSTESE ESS S1t LSS SSS Seeereaerestete tsi aoe
StS SS OS SOSSHG HST 6 1O0hs Oe) te ee ee EP Se GF EP OS HSS SH HLS SE HNS FIG OG LESH LE ehh et LAR ASSESS Ot4e80ss tett is a
¢ oe 8 a3 6 rT : eo -tD0
CURRENT AMPERES
A\ NOT TO BE USED AS SINGLE WIRE

[AC 43.13-1B p. 11-38]

FIGURE 11-4B. SINGLE COPPER WIRE IN FREE AIR
300 LLL LL LEE eee
Ct —1— WIRE SIZE] 8 +++ ert tial teeta et 4 tt 4/0 2s OH Ty 30H 4/0r
MHHIITT LITE Tne te
MTT TTL ITT itt titted
MITT IIT rin” CO”CC Oe
MTT Tt OCC] OL AA
MMMM LLL COCO A a
MITTIN LLL Le COLO CL
oO 200 HITTIN hittin ink) sO Cl A DNF GRMN RAST RRA EP
TIMI LITTLE ie, LCC
z MTT LL TTT,” CSCOCOCO Oe UE
ort MIM Et
) E FILALEG SRO LEAEAE MTEC EL 1 A A DAU a Oh can NTT
xo USUI UUEMBOROOOVOUGOI0 101 A a AY CUA
roe ANNE 1 A
ul SIESi iis see ee memeree rine ere set se SSS a eas cece aten sasses settee aa ae Sane Seessstsssssisessts
x A Ci siisuissssssssrsisiseissts: << =——S+ ae Sear aes sass cers sissr stisite sa mesesesssssessetanieestts
25 Sites sii tee ea eae See Steere tke e 218s ey we ee ae Same nema sonst sense? stasisit sae eaaeessassnsrssessseseeets
e> 70 PEE eet tt tte
s — HH teeth tet tt ea et ee
wi = 60 SE a tee
a0 SE ee S| aaa oar en en ne Any Sees mes MOREY AS1GE) SIMMER ES TEAAETIENIeLnLaT
PMs iitstisnenaneneaten cists: si¢ a ceenee emeeeeret ane Gan ase’ igen dasits ishtteepesstatamtenniitientt
UW = 50 PRE REEe a——
: Pry isiittesnaces oasteti jtttamae Seamer Sr Set Se deep tate ititiae svesssesestsstsinitianatid
MM 3 scitissaaae anreesist sititiit ime oememeee amie Ser Sam amsr canis asissaisiiitiiniieeeeeessssininannsitiseees
FE a ttt tot te
30 HERE eee
MTT tit Titi Titi _ eee
MtttHiiiT TTT ith Titi... LLL eee
MTT TT Tiliitiititiiiitnit, tt
HUGG NCEE SCOT SRG STSI GL 5h! 81a mS eS OS Se ST MASKS TR ISN RTE STE ST RRM RMA ROR A NALA T TERE IENINE
40 50 50 70 80 90100 200 300 "e 50 500 DO BOO $007000
CURRENT AMPERES

[AC 43.13-1B p. 11-39]

FIGURE 11-5. BUNDLE DERATING CURVES
So | os Aue _. BUNDLE LOADING,
AM AANS Pct
S \o.7 Ne wie Spert a
Z NNO Yau
i | 06 IN| Hic
= Santi AIFS
ox SNe ing )
S Se ing SMD MT TTT Th
0.4 Oe es | Cor pi |
= | RARER EERE EERE ee
0.1
i 3 5 7 9  B I 17 19 BW 2B 3 2 wW MH 33 35 37 39 4
NUMBER OF WIRES IN BUNDLE

[AC 43.13-1B p. 11-40]

FIGURE 11-6. ALTITUDE DERATING CURVE
1.00
mw (095 y
x 0.90
>) 0.85
fm 0.80 5
Re 0.75 a
0.70 Binet
10 20 30 40 50 ri) 70 80 90 100
ALTITUDE (x 1,000 feet)
11-70.-11-75. [RESERVED.]